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Individual Differences in Language Education: An International Journal 

Feedback Research in Second Language 

Management Issues in Healthcare System

Language Teacher Education Research

Artificial Intelligence Knowledge Development

The paper examines the effects of task structure and task immediacy in attentional allocation in the process of engaging with (L2) speech production among international learners of English as an additional language (EAL) in Canada. In a series of four experimental conditions (structural support (structured vs. unstructured)) and immediacy (Here/Now), sixty B2 learners were asked to complete a narrative task. There/Then). Participants provided retrospective verbal reports to establish the sources of dysfluency in their speech. There are four processing stages: conceptualization, lexical encoding, syntactic encoding, and phonological encoding, which were based on the model of speech production proposed by Levelt to code the dysfluency markers. The findings indicated that unstructured tasks produced more pauses associated with conceptualization, suggesting greater requirements for message planning. Conversely, There/Then condition tasks, especially with structural support, had many more dysfluencies that were lexical, syntactic, and phonological encoding in nature, indicating increased focus on the linguistic form. The large effect size across conditions indicates that task design strongly influenced the allocation of attentional resources. Most notably, structured narratives in the past tense, without contextual support, significantly heightened attention to form, as evidenced by increased pauses during lexical, syntactic, and phonological encoding.

ltrq.2026.55.06.pdf

Original Research 

ltrq.2026.55.06.xml

The Impact of Task Structure and Immediacy on International EAL Learners’ Attention Orientation During Speech Production

This study examines the effectiveness of various feedback models in enhancing grammatical accuracy in English article usage among 140 Iranian EFL medical students. Using a randomized experimental design, participants were assigned to five groups: AI feedback alone (n=28), AI with immediate oral teacher feedback (n=30), AI with delayed written teacher feedback (n=35), a hybrid model combining AI with both teacher feedback types (n=24), and a control group receiving traditional feedback (n=23). To evaluate performance, we administered pre-tests, post-tests, and delayed post-tests, while a post-study survey gauged learner attitudes. The data revealed that the hybrid model yielded the most substantial improvements in accuracy and long-term retention (post-test M=21.83; delayed post-test M=21.29). The next most effective condition was AI coupled with immediate oral feedback. Notably, AI feedback used in isolation surpassed AI with delayed written feedback, underscoring the crucial role of immediacy in learning. Furthermore, the survey showed a strong positive correlation between learner attitudes and performance (r=.32, p&lt;.001), with the hybrid group expressing the most positive perceptions. These findings highlight the pedagogical value of integrating AI tools with timely, multi-modal teacher feedback to foster linguistic development and learner engagement in EFL contexts.

ltrq.2026.54.05.pdf

ltrq.2026.54.05  .xml

Optimizing EFL Article Accuracy with Hybrid AI-Teacher Feedback

This study attempts to explore the teachers&rsquo; beliefs on the causes of learners&rsquo; misbehavior in language classrooms. To do so, 23 language teachers completed a narrative frame in which they discussed a misbehavior experience they had in the class and why they thought it happened; they, then, attended semi-structured interviews where they discussed their experiences regarding learners&rsquo; misbehavior. A thematic analysis was employed and the data was analyzed with an eye on the study&rsquo;s theoretical underpinning, i.e., Activity Theory (AT). The results indicated that there are different sources of misbehavior on different interconnected components of AT. In the &ldquo;tool&rdquo; component, the emergent themes were materials constraints, technological challenges, and hobbies interventions. In the &ldquo;rules&rdquo;, some themes such as teaching methodology, socio-cultural norms, and political, and ideological intolerance or disobedience emerged. It was in the &ldquo;community&rdquo; component of AT that the data revealed social phenomena, colleagues and authorities, and learners heterogeneity. Finally, in the &ldquo;division of labor&rdquo; the emerged themes were overwhelming responsibilities, family issues, and executives&rsquo; dereliction. The findings suggest a new look at language learners&rsquo; misbehavior and inform teacher education programs in which teachers are trained on this issue to manage learning in their classrooms effectively.

ltrq.2024.42.05.pdf

ltrq.2024.42.05.xml

An Activity Theoretic Exploration of the Causes of Language Learners’ Misbehavior: Teachers’ Belief in Focus